Real-time in-line testing of semiconductor wafers

ABSTRACT

A method and apparatus for measuring damage of an ion implanted semiconductor wafer during semiconductor processing. The method includes the steps of conveying the wafer such that a surface of the wafer is substantially parallel to a surface photovoltage electrode of a head assembly during the semiconductor processing and exposing at least a portion of the wafer to light having a wavelength, and an intensity and modulating the light intensity at a predefined frequency. The method also includes the step of varying the frequency of the light intensity modulation and detecting the surface photovoltage in response to light modulated at the various frequencies using the surface photovoltage electrode. The method then calculates an electrical property of the wafer from the photovoltage induced at the surface of the wafer at each of the light intensity modulation frequencies.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to the testing of semiconductor wafers during manufacturing and specifically to the real-time in-line testing of semiconductor wafers during integrated circuit-fabrication.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There are numerous individual operations, or processing steps, performed, in a strictly followed sequence, on a silicon wafer in the course of manufacturing a complex integrated circuit (IC). Each such operation must be precisely controlled in order to assure that the entire fabrication process yields integrated circuits displaying the required electrical characteristics.

Frequently, failure of an individual operation is detected only after the completion of the entire, very expensive, process of IC fabrication. Due to the very high cost of advanced IC fabrication processes, such failures result in the severe financial losses to the integrated circuit manufacturer. Therefore detection of errors in the manufacturing process, immediately after their occurrence, could prevent the unnecessary continuation of the fabrication of devices which are destined to malfunction, and hence, could substantially reduce the financial losses resulting from such errors.

Process monitoring in semiconductor device manufacturing relies upon the examination of the changes which occur in certain physical and/or chemical properties of the silicon wafer upon which the semiconductor devices are fabricated. These changes may occur following the various processing steps to which the silicon wafer is subjected and are reflected by changes in the electrical properties of the wafer. Therefore, by monitoring selected electrical properties of the silicon wafer in the course of IC fabrication, an effective control over the manufacturing process can be accomplished.

Not all of the electrical characteristics of a completed integrated circuit can be predicted based on the measurements performed on a partially processed wafer. Most of the characteristics however, can be predicted directly or indirectly based on the investigation of the condition of the surface of the silicon wafer (substrate) in the course of IC manufacture. The electrical condition of the silicon surface is very sensitive to the outcome of the individual processing steps that are applied during IC manufacturing. Hence, the measurement of the electrical properties of the substrate surface can be an effective tool by which the monitoring of the outcome of the individual processing steps can be accomplished.

The determination of the electrical characteristics of the wafer surface typically requires physical contact with the wafer surface, or the placement of a contactless probe over a stationary wafer. In the latter case an optical signal or a high electric field is used to disturb equilibrium distribution of the electrons in the surface and near-surface region of semiconductor. Typically, the degree of departure from equilibrium is driven by variations of one or more electrical characteristics of the surface region, the near-surface region, and the bulk of the semiconductor. To obtain a more complete picture of the entire surface of the wafer, several measurements at various points on the surface can be made. Such a procedure, known as “mapping” performs a measurement at each location before the measuring device moves on to the next location. The substrate, in this procedure, typically does not remain in continuous motion, so consequently the applicability of such a method for use in real-time in-line process monitoring is limited.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a method of measuring damage of an ion implanted semiconductor wafer during semiconductor processing. The method includes the steps of conveying the wafer such that a surface of the wafer is substantially parallel to a surface photovoltage electrode of a head assembly during the semiconductor processing and exposing at least a portion of said wafer to light having a wavelength and an intensity, and modulating the light intensity at a predefined frequency. The method also includes the step of varying the frequency of the light intensity modulation and detecting the surface photovoltage in response to light modulated at the various frequencies using the surface photovoltage electrode. The method then calculates an electrical property of the wafer from the photovoltage induced at the surface of the wafer at each of the light intensity modulation frequencies.

The invention also relates to an apparatus for measuring damage to an ion implanted semiconductor wafer during semiconductor processing. In one embodiment the apparatus includes a head assembly including a surface photovoltage electrode; a conveyer for conveying the wafer such that a surface of the wafer is substantially parallel to the surface photovoltage electrode of the head assembly during said semiconductor processing; and a light source generating light having a wavelength and an intensity. The intensity of the light is modulated at a frequency, and the modulation frequency is varied. The apparatus also includes a detector for detecting a photovoltage induced at the surface of the wafer in response to the varying of the modulation frequency of the light and a processor in electrical communication with the detector for calculating an electrical property of the wafer from the photovoltage induced at the surface of the wafer at each of the light intensity modulation frequencies.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

This invention is pointed out with particularity in the appended claims. The above and further advantages of this invention may be better understood by referring to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an embodiment of an apparatus for the real-time, in-line, electrical characterization of a semiconductor during manufacturing;

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the probe assembly of the apparatus of FIG. 1 in position above a wafer transfer system;

FIG. 3 is a top perspective cutaway view of the probe assembly of FIG. 2;

FIG. 4 is a bottom perspective view of an embodiment of the sensor plate of the probe assembly of FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of an embodiment of an electrical circuit for measuring the surface photovoltage using front wafer surface coupling;

FIG. 6 a depicts a block diagram of a corona control circuit used to charge a wafer so as to generate an inversion layer at the wafer surface; FIG. 6 b depicts a block diagram of the corona control circuit of FIG. 6 a used to discharge a wafer;

FIG. 7 is a bottom perspective cutaway view of an embodiment of the coated sensor plate of FIG. 4 with a polyimide coating, used with sensor charging and high voltage biasing;

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an embodiment of a preamplifier circuit used for the high voltage biasing of the wafer using the sensor electrodes;

FIG. 9 is a graph of front and back surface charge measurements of a silicon wafer undergoing cleaning;

FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing the steps of a system for monitoring as-implanted (before annealing) wafer parameters and of implanted/annealed (after annealing) wafer parameters, according to an illustrative embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 11 is a schematic of the equivalent circuit of the measured AC-SPV in ion implanted silicon;

FIG. 12 is an example of illustrative roll-off frequency sweep curves for as-implanted silicon using the teachings of the inventions;

FIG. 13 is an example of a calibration curve derived from frequency sweep curves for as-implanted silicon according to the teaching of the invention.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

In one embodiment the apparatus to perform various electrical characterizations makes use of the method for measuring the photo-induced voltage at the surface of semiconductor materials, termed the surface photovoltage (SPV), disclosed in the U.S. Pat. No. 4,544,887. In this method, a beam of light is directed at a region of the surface of a specimen of semiconductor material and the photo-induced change in electrical potential at the surface is measured. The wavelength of the illuminating light beam is selected to be shorter than the wavelength of light corresponding to the energy gap of the semiconductor material undergoing testing. The intensity of the light beam is modulated, with both the intensity of the light and the frequency of modulation being selected such that the resulting AC component of the induced photovoltage is directly proportional to the intensity of light and inversely proportional to the frequency of modulation.

When measured under these conditions, the AC component of the surface photovoltage (SPV), designated δV_(s), is proportional to the reciprocal of the semiconductor space-charge capacitance, C_(sc). When the surface of the specimen is illuminated uniformly, the relationship between the surface photovoltage (SPV) and the space-charge capacitance is given, at sufficiently high frequencies of light modulation, by the relation:

${\delta\; V_{s}} = {\frac{\phi\left( {1 - R} \right)}{Kf}{qC}_{SC}^{- 1}}$

where φ is the incident photon flux, R is the reflection coefficient of the semiconductor specimen, f is the frequency at which the light is modulated, and q is the elementary charge. The constant K is equal to 4 for a square wave modulation of the light intensity and is equal to 2π for sinusoidal modulation.

In the above referenced patent, only a uniform configuration is considered in which the area of the sensor is at least the same size as the semiconductor wafer and the entire area of the specimen is uniformly illuminated. When only a portion of the semiconductor specimen surface is coupled to the sensor, that is, when the sensor is smaller than the wafer, and when the semiconductor surface uniformly illuminated in that area is coupled to the sensor, the surface photovoltage, δV_(s), may be determined from the measured signal, δV_(m), according to the relationships: Re(δV _(s))=Re(δV _(m))−(1+C _(L) /C _(p))+Im(δV _(m))·(ω·C _(p) ·R _(L))⁻¹ Im(δV _(s))=Im(δV _(m))·(1+C _(L) /C _(p))−Re(δV _(m))·(ω·C _(p) ·R _(L))⁻¹ where Re(δV_(s)) and Im(δV_(s)) are the real and imaginary components of the voltage, ω is an angular frequency of light modulation, C_(p) is the capacitance between sensor and the wafer, and C_(L) and R_(L) are the input capacitance and resistance, respectively, of the electronic detection system.

From the sign of the imaginary component, the conductivity type may be determined. If the measurement is calibrated for a p-type material, then the sign of the imaginary component will change if the material is n-type.

Using above relationships, the depletion layer width, W_(d), is given by equation:

$W_{d} = {\frac{ɛ_{s}}{q}{\frac{\omega{{{Im}\left( {\delta\; V_{s}} \right)}}}{\phi\left( {1 - R} \right)} \cdot \left( {1 + \left\lbrack \frac{{Re}\left( {\delta\; V_{s}} \right)}{{Im}\left( {\delta\; V_{s}} \right)} \right\rbrack^{2}} \right)}}$ where φ(1−R) is the intensity of light absorbed in the semiconductor, q is the elementary charge, and ε_(s) is the semiconductor permittivity.

In addition to the space-charge capacitance, C_(sc), the measurement of the surface photovoltage can be used to determine the surface charge density, Q_(ss), the doping concentration, N_(sc), and the surface recombination lifetime, τ, using the following relationships. The space charge capacitance, C_(sc), is proportional to the reciprocal of the semiconductor depletion layer width, W_(d), according to the relationship:

$C_{sc} = \frac{ɛ_{s}}{W_{d}}$ where ε_(s) is the semiconductor permittivity. The density of space charge, Q_(sc), is in turn described by equation: Q_(sc)=qN_(sc)W_(d) where q is an elementary charge and the net doping concentration in the space-charge region, N_(sc), is positive in an n-type material and negative in a p-type material. In addition, since the surface charge density, Q_(sc), is given by the expression: Q_(sc)=−Q_(ss) the surface charge density is easily determined from the space charge density.

Further, if an inversion layer can be created at the wafer surface, the depletion layer width, W_(d), under inversion conditions is related to the net doping concentration, N_(sc), according to the relationship:

$W_{d} = \sqrt{\frac{4ɛ_{s}{kT}\;{\ln\left( {{N_{sc}/n_{i}}} \right)}}{q^{2}{N_{sc}}}}$ where kT is the thermal energy and n_(i) is the intrinsic concentration of free carriers in the semiconductor. Several methods of forming such an inversion layer at the semiconductor surface are disclosed below.

In addition, the surface recombination rate may also be determined from the SPV. The recombination lifetime of the minority carriers at the surface, τ, is given by the expression:

$\frac{1}{\omega\tau} = {{\frac{{Re}\left( {\delta\; V_{s}} \right)}{{Im}\left( {\delta\; V_{s}} \right)}}.}$

In general, the ac photovoltaic signal might be presented as

$V_{SPV} = {\frac{I_{eh}}{G + {{j\omega}\; C}} \propto {\frac{I_{eh}}{C_{sc}}{{f\left( {\omega\tau}_{s} \right)}.}}}$

Here I_(eh) is an electron-hole generation rate, G and C are total conductance and capacitance of the system, ω is a light modulation frequency and τ_(s) is a carrier lifetime at the near surface region. The electron-hole generation rate is given by

${I_{eh} = {q\;{\Phi\left( {1 - R} \right)}\left( {1 - \frac{\exp\left( {{- \alpha}\; W_{d}} \right)}{1 + {\alpha\; L}}} \right)}},$ where Φ is a photon flux, R and α are reflectivity and absorption coefficients, L is a carrier diffusion length and W_(d) is a depletion layer width. High defect density conditions αW_(d)<<1 and αL<<1 give us I_(eh)∝qΦ(1−R)αL.

The diffusion length

${L = {\sqrt{\left( {D\;\tau} \right)} \propto {\left\langle \tau \right\rangle\sqrt{\frac{kT}{m}}} \propto {\frac{f(E)}{N_{D}}\sqrt{\frac{kT}{m}}}}},$ where D is a diffusion coefficient, N_(D) is a number of defects/recombination centers, f(E) is a function of charge carrier energy, which depends on prevailing energy scattering mechanism, m is a charge carrier effective mass, k is a Boltzman constant.

Combining the last two expressions we get

$I_{eh} = {{\frac{q\;{\Phi\left( {1 - R} \right)}}{N_{D}^{*}}\mspace{14mu}{with}\mspace{14mu} N_{D}^{*}} = {\frac{N_{D}}{\alpha\;{f(E)}}\sqrt{\frac{kT}{m}}}}$ representing an effective defect density.

The ac photo voltage is now

${V_{SPV} \propto \frac{q\;\Phi}{C_{sc}N_{D}^{*}}} = {\frac{W_{d}q\;\Phi}{ɛ\; N_{D}^{*}}.}$ Renormalizing the depletion depth

${W_{d}->\frac{W_{d}}{N_{D}^{*}}} = {\overset{\sim}{W}}_{d}$ we arrive to the following correlation of measured parameter N_(SC) and the effective defect density N*_(D):

${{N_{sc} \propto \frac{kT}{q^{2}{\overset{\sim}{W}}_{d}^{2}}} = {\frac{kT}{q^{2}W_{d}^{2}}N_{D}^{*2}}},$ where the measured QCS signal is proportional to the square of implant generated defect density.

Finally, in the case of ion implanted silicon wafers, it is found that, especially in as-implanted conditions, carrier lifetime is inversely proportional to implant damage. In very low dose implanted cases, free carrier concentration is reduced. With heavy dose implant application, increased crystal damage give a photovoltage signal dominated by photo carrier lifetimes rather than free carrier concentration. In some cases carrier lifetime is the dominant factor in the measured SPV signal. After the wafers are annealed, the substitutional site implanted dopant contributes to the net carrier concentration, N_(sc) which is derived from SPV. For as-implanted p or n-type wafers the charged defects density is a measure of implant dose/energy. For implanted/annealed silicon wafers the measured quantities give the doping concentration, which is directly correlated to implanted dose/energy.

In brief overview, and referring to FIG. 1, an embodiment of such an apparatus 10 for the real-time, in-line, electrical characterization of a semiconductor during manufacturing using induced surface photovoltage includes a sensor head assembly 14, supporting electronics 18, and a wafer conveying device 22. In operation, the wafer conveying device 22, such as a conveyor belt, a robotic arm, a wafer chuck or similar device, moves wafers 28, 28′ through the manufacturing process and, in one embodiment, beneath the sensor head assembly 14.

Referring to FIG. 2, the sensor head assembly 14 includes a probe head 32 mounted in a bracket 36 on a motorized stage 40. The motorized stage 40 moves the probe head 32 in a vertical direction (arrow z) to adjust vertical position of the probe head 32 with respect to the wafer 28 to within a 0.2 μm accuracy. The mechanical stage 40 is attached to a probe arm 44.

The longitudinal axis L-L′ of the probe head 32 is adjusted to be perpendicular to the plane of the wafer 28, by adjusting the tilt of the probe arm 44, either manually (using set screws 46) or mechanically (using for example piezoelectric actuators 48). The vertical position of the probe head 32 with respect to the wafer 28 is controlled by feedback signal from capacitive-position sensing electrodes described in detail below.

Briefly, three capacitive-position sensing electrodes are located on the periphery of the sensor. To measure capacitance between each of these electrodes and the wafer, a 70 kHz 1V signal is applied through a respective 10 kohm resistor connected to each of these electrodes. The AC current flowing through these resistors in measured using a preamplifier and a lock-in amplifier. The lock-in signal is further processed by a computer and supplied to the motion control board that, in turn, positions the probe at a predetermined distance from the wafer surface using vertical (z-axis) motorized stage.

Referring to FIG. 3, the probe head 32 includes a sensor mount assembly 50 which provides support for a sensor 54 that is connected to a preamplifier board 58 by a plurality of flexible connectors 60. Light emitted by a light emitting diode (LED) 64 is collimated by lens 68 prior to passing through a beam splitter 72.

LED 64 is mounted on a LED driver board 74 which controls the intensity of the LED 64, in response to a signal from a reference photodiode 78, (through a preamplifier 79) at an intensity level determined by the computer 160. Light from the LED 64 reaches the reference photodiode 78 by being partially reflected by the beam splitter 72. The light which passes through the beam splitter 72 passes through openings 80, 82 in the circuit board 86 and the preamplifier board 58, respectively, prior to passing through the sensor mount assembly 50 and impinging on the wafer 28 undergoing testing.

Light reflected by the wafer 28 passes back along the light path just described before being reflected by the beam splitter 72 to a measuring photodiode 92. The light reflected by the wafer 28, Φ_(R), is used to detect edge of the wafer passing beneath the probe head 32 and trigger measurements. The reflected light is also used to measure light absorbed in the wafer 28 according to the relationship: Φ=Φ₀ −Φhd R where Φ₀ is the incident light which can be determined by measuring the light reflected from an aluminum mirror replacing the wafer 28. In this way, the reflection coefficient of the wafer 28 can be determined. Although the above embodiment describes the splitting of light by a beam splitter, other embodiments are possible in which light is split using optical fibers.

Referring again to FIG. 1, the LED 64 is controlled by signals from, and the probe head 32 returns signals to, supporting electronics 18. The supporting electronics 18 include an oscillator 100 which supplies a 40 kHz modulation control signal 104 that is used as a reference signal by an LED control 62 to control an LED driver 63 which powers the LED 64. Oscillator 100 also provides a reference signal 108 to a lock-in amplifier 112. The output signals 116 from the surface photovoltage sensor and the measurement photodiode 92 (through a preamplifier 93) of the probe head 32 are input signals to multiplexer 120 that alternately connects each signal to the input of the lock-in amplifier 112. The lock-in amplifier 112 demodulates the input signal and supplies the demodulated signal to another multiplexer 150. Multiplexer 150 switches between the two input signals from lock-in amplifiers 112 and 140 connecting them to a data acquisition (DAQ) board 156 that in turn digitizes the input signals making them available for further processing in the computer 160. In an alternate embodiment, multiplexer 150 is part of the data acquisition board 156.

FIG. 4 is a bottom perspective view showing the sensor plate of the sensor head 32. A plurality of electrodes are formed on a rigid and insulating substrate 200. In one embodiment, a 10 mm diameter fused quartz disc is used. A central surface photovoltage electrode 204 detects the signal from the wafer 28. The central surface photovoltage electrode 204 is partially transmissive, thereby permitting the light from the LED or laser 64 to reach the wafer 28. Three other electrodes 208 located on the periphery of the substrate are used both for sensing the position of the sensor head 32 above the wafer 28 and for measuring the parallelism of the sensor with respect to the surface of the wafer 28. All electrodes 204, 208 are formed by the deposition of an indium-tin-oxide film through a shadow mask.

Similarly, a plurality of electrodes 212, for connecting the sensors with the preamplifier circuit board 58 through the flexible connectors 60, are formed on the surface of the substrate 200 which is opposite the electrodes 204, 208. Thin conductive electrodes 218, on the side walls of the substrate 200, which connect the electrodes 204, 208 on the first surface with their respective electrodes 212 on the second surface, are also deposited using a shadow mask. This deposition avoids the use of vias through the substrate and thereby retains the flatness of the sensor to better than 0.2 μm. Both front 204, 208 and side electrodes 218, may be protected with a thin insulating coating, such as polyimide, formed by spinning so as to maintain the flatness of the sensor.

The electrodes 208 are used for capacitively sensing the position of the sensor above the wafer 28. Referring again to FIG. 1, a 70 kHz input signal 124 for measuring the distance from a wafer 28 is supplied by an oscillator 128 to the position electrodes 208. The same signal is also supplied as a reference signal 132 for a lock-in amplifier 140. A position signal 146 from each of the three position sensing electrodes 208 is supplied as the input signal to a multiplexer 148 through a preamplifier 149. The multiplexer 148 in turn, switching between each of these signals, connects each alternately to a lock-in amplifier 140. The demodulated output signals from the lock-in amplifiers 112 and 140 are input signals to a multiplexer 150 which connects each signal alternately to a data acquisition board 156 located in a computer 160, including a CPU 164. Again, in an alternative embodiment, multiplexer 150 is part of the data acquisition board 156.

The position signal 146 is compared by the CPU 164 with the reference value corresponding to a desired distance (established by calibration and stored in the computer) between the sensor 54 and the wafer 28. The difference between these two values, corresponds to the deviation of the sensor-wafer distance from the desired value, is supplied to a motion control board 170 that positions the probe head 32 at a predetermined distance from the wafer 28 using the motorized stage 40.

In operation, when an edge of the continuously moving wafer 28 crosses the beam of the intensity modulated light from LED or laser 64, the intensity of the reflected light increases, thereby increasing the signal from the photodiode 92. This measurement of the reflected light is repeated and the new value compared with the previous value. The light intensity measurements are repeated until the difference between sequential values decreases to below 5% indicating that the entire light beam is within the flat portion of the wafer.

This decrease in deviation triggers acquisition of the SPV signal by the surface photovoltage electrode 204, followed by acquisition of the capacitance signals by the position electrodes 208. If capacitance signals from different electrodes (208) differ by more than 5%, the SPV signal is stored but not recalculated. The sequence of all measurements is then repeated until capacitances from different position electrodes (208) fall within 5% limit indicating that the electrodes are not near the edge of the wafer 28. The average of the capacitances from the three positioning electrodes 208 at this point is used to recalculate all previous values of the SPV signal.

The SPV measurement cycle is repeated, sequentially measuring light intensity, SPV signal and capacitance of positioning electrodes, until capacitances from the three positioning electrodes (208) differ by more than 5%, indicating the approach of the opposite edge of the wafer 28. After reaching this point of the wafer 28, the SPV measurements are made using the previously measured values of capacitance. The measurements of each value (reflected light, SPV signal, capacitance), in each cycle, are repeated for 10 msec and averaged by CPU 164.

The wafer 28, in one embodiment, is placed on the grounded chuck (conveyor belt, robotic arm, or other similar device) 178, coated with an insulating material, that is used to carry the wafer 28 beneath, above, or otherwise, such that the surface of the sensor of the probe head 32 and the surface of the wafer are parallel. Alternatively, the conveying device may be biased by a DC voltage. In one embodiment the DC bias voltage is selected to be between −1000 and 1000 volts. Although FIG. 1 illustrates the use of a grounded, insulated chuck 22 to move the wafer 28 beneath the probe assembly 14, it is possible to provide all the necessary measurements without grounding the chuck using only the electrodes provided by the sensor 54. Referring to FIG. 5, the SPV signal is, as described previously, received by the central surface photovoltage electrode 204 which is connected to the input terminal of an operational amplifier 250 located on the preamplifier circuit board 58. The other input terminal of the operational amplifier 250 is connected to ground and to the output terminal of the operational amplifier 250 through one or more resistors. What was previously a back capacitive contact, supplied by the chuck, is now provided by the three positioning electrodes 208 located on the periphery of the sensor and which, during the SPV measurements, are connected to the ground 252 rather than to the input terminal of the capacitance (current measuring) preamplifier located on the preamplifier circuit board 58.

To measure capacitance, the electrodes 208 are alternatively switched between the ground 252 and input of the capacitance preamplifier located on preamplifier circuit board 58. This arrangement makes possible non-contact measurements with any type of wafer support. Thus, the wafer support does not need to be connected to ground and could be made of insulating material.

As discussed above, measurements of the surface doping concentration require the formation of an inversion layer at the wafer surface. In one embodiment this is accomplished by charging the wafer 28 using a corona generator and subsequently performing surface photovoltage measurement on the wafer 28. Specifically, the wafer 28 is first charged to inversion with a corona generator. N-type wafers require a negative surface charge and p-type wafers require a positive surface charge. In one embodiment, the corona generator includes a single metal tip, for example tungsten, located 5 mm above the wafer 28 and biased to 3.5 kV for 2 to 3 sec. After charging, the wafer 28 is moved beneath the probe assembly 14 and the measurements performed. After the measurement, the wafer 28 is either moved beneath a neutral charge corona generator or returned to the original corona generator operated in a neutral discharge mode in order to discharge the wafer.

The simple corona generator with the metal tip or wire does not allow for the controlled charging of the wafer surface. The control of charging is important because while there is a minimum charge required to induce an inversion layer at the wafer 28 surface, overcharging may damage the wafer surface, and even cause electrical breakdown of the insulating coating formed on the wafer surface. To avoid overcharging the wafer 28, a closed loop controlled corona charging arrangement, disclosed in FIGS. 6 a and 6 b, controls the charge deposited on the surface of the wafer and thereby prevents surface damage.

Referring to FIG. 6 a, the wafer 28 on the grounded, insulated chuck 22 is moved beneath an ionized air source 260 located about 10 mm above the wafer 28. A mesh, stainless-steel, reference electrode 264 is placed in a distance of about 0.5 mm to 1 mm from the wafer 28. The difference between the potential on the reference electrode 264, V_(el), and a user defined and computer generated reference voltage, V_(ref), 268, termed the differential potential, V_(diff), is amplified and its polarity is reversed within the corona control module 270. This voltage, V_(corr), is applied to the ionized air source 260. Thus, the polarity of the potential applied to the ionized air source 260, V_(corr), by the corona control module 270 is opposite to the polarity of differential voltage and is given by the expression: V _(corr) =V _(ref) −V _(el)

Control of the corona charging during the charging process allows not only for real-time control but allows also simpler electronic circuitry to be used. The presence of the ions between ionized air source 260, reference electrode 264, and the wafer 28 lowers the equivalent impedances in the circuitry and permits amplifiers to be used (in the control module 270) which have an input impedance of 10⁹–10¹⁰ ohms. This input impedance is several orders of magnitude lower than in the amplifiers utilized in previous approaches (typically 10¹³–10¹⁵ ohms) when a potential of the wafer surface is measured not during charging but after the turning off of the corona.

Referring to FIG. 6 b, the wafer 28 may be discharged by setting the reference voltage 268 to zero, i.e., connecting it to ground. Alternatively, if separate corona units are used for charging and discharging of the wafers, the discharging corona reference voltage can be permanently attached to the ground.

Referring to FIG. 7, an alternative approach to inducing a surface inversion layer is to bias the sensor with a high voltage. Such an approach requires formation of the insulating film 230 such as polyimide over the central electrode 204 and positioning electrodes 208 of the sensor. FIG. 8 depicts this alternative approach to inducing an inversion layer at the surface of the wafer 28 by voltage biasing. FIG. 8 shows a schematic diagram of an electronic circuit that includes a preamplifier for measuring AC surface photovoltage and a connection to a biasing high voltage source used with the sensor having a polyimide coating 230 as just described. The insulating coating 230 of the sensor 54 allows the application of a high enough voltage (500–1000 V) to induce a surface inversion layer in typical wafers used in manufacturing. The arrangement in which a rigid sensor electrode 204 is separated by an air gap from the semiconductor surface requires high degree of flatness of the electrode surface. When such a high DC voltage is used, any edges or surface roughness will increase the local electrical field and enhance ionization of the air resulting in electrical breakdown. Therefore electrical connections between the electrode and the detection electronics are constructed so as to have a minimal effect on the surface flatness. Thus, the use of the side connections 218 eliminates the need to form via holes in the sensor and maintains the high flatness of the sensor. The current in the space charge region of the wafer 28 (indicated in phantom) which is generated by the illumination of the wafer 28 by the LED 64 is depicted as an equivalent current source, J_(h). An equivalent resistor, R_(R), which represents the carrier recombination at the surface of the wafer 28 and an equivalent capacitor, C_(sc), which represents the space charge capacitance are also depicted. C_(G) represents capacitance between the wafer 28 and the chuck 22, while C_(p) represents capacitance between the sensor electrode 204 and the wafer 28. A computer controllable high voltage 300 is applied through a 10 Mohm resistor, R_(HV), to the sensor electrode 204. The sensor electrode 204 is also connected to the input of the operational amplifier 250 (described previously) through a high voltage capacitor, C_(HV). The capacitance, C_(OA) (also shown in phantom) represents input capacitance of the operational amplifier 250. C_(HV) is selected to be about 10 times larger than C_(OA) so that C_(L) used in calculating IM(δV_(s)) and Re(δV_(s)) is close to C_(OA). Similarly R_(L) used in calculating IM(δV_(s)) and Re(δV_(s)) is close to R_(HV).

In addition to the methods just described to form an inversion layer, an inversion layer at the surface of the wafer 28 can be also formed using a chemical treatment. This approach is especially useful for p-type silicon wafers. Since HF introduces positive surface charge, HF treatment will produce a negative inversion layer at the surface of p-type silicon wafers. In one embodiment, the silicon wafer to be tested is subjected to a mixture of hydrofluoric acid and water (1:100 HF:H₂O) in a liquid or vapor form. The wafer is then placed beneath the probe assembly 14. In number of processes, HF treatment is already part of the production sequence so that probe assembly 14 needs only to be placed after HF processing location.

In another embodiment, SPV is used to measure electrical characteristics of as-implanted (before annealing) silicon wafer parameters and of implanted/annealed (after annealing) silicon wafer parameters as shown in the flowchart depicted in FIG. 10. The SPV measures crystal lattice damage in the as-implanted cases and measures free carrier concentration in the annealed implant state. Implant dose sensitivities, as determined by the ratio of the relative percent change in SPV signal to the percent change in implant dose/energy, in the range of 0.5 to 3.0, along with high density measurement maps, provide improved analysis of ion implant uniformity.

In one illustrative embodiment a silicon wafer is presented which either has undergone ion implantation or is implanted with ions as part of the monitoring process 400. Ion implantation may performed by doping the substrate with a dopant 402 using any common species, such as boron (B), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), flourine (F), argon (Ar), indium, (In), or boron difluoride (BF₂). The doping may performed using ultra-low energy ions, such as less than 10 keV. After ion implantation, the wafer typically has ion implant dose/energy range. By way of example, low dose may be in the range of 0.1E11–5E12 ions/cm²; high dose may be in the range of 5E12–2E15 ions/cm²; low energy may be in the range of 0.1 keV–20 keV; and high energy may be in the range of 20 keV–10 MeV. The wafer may then be monitored either as-implanted (before annealing) or the wafer may be annealed before undergoing the monitoring process, to measure the free carrier concentration.

In an illustrative embodiment, when measuring an as-implanted wafer, after the wafer has undergone the optional ion implantation 402, an optional hydrogen fluoride wash 414, 416 may be applied to the wafer to remove oxide. For example, the optional hydrogen fluoride wash may be applied in cases where there is low energy/low dose. Alternatively, when the wafer is characterized as low energy/high dose or high energy/low dose, a hydrogen fluoride wash may be applied in cases wherein oxide was applied to the wafer before ion implantation. As in the illustrative embodiments described above, a corona may then be optionally applied 418, 420, before the wafer is moved beneath the probe assembly 14 and measurements performed 422. According to one illustrative embodiment, the corona is applied in cases wherein the wafer is characterized as low dose/low energy. The corona application enables the calculation of the surface recombination time, whereas if no corona is applied to the substrate, the minority and majority lifetime may be calculated. After the optional corona application, the wafer is moved beneath the probe assembly 14 and the measurements performed to assess damage, such as to the crystal lattice 422. The electrical properties of the as-implanted wafer may be characterized by comparing the measurements taken against a known standard of typical wafer damage.

If the wafer is alternatively to be measured after annealing, after the optional ion implantation 402, the wafer is annealed 412 using any standard annealing process, such rapid thermal processing (RTP) or furnace annealing 412. After annealing, an optional hydrogen fluoride wash may be applied to the wafer 414′, 416′. According to one illustrative embodiment, after applying the optional hydrogen fluoride wash, an inversion layer may be created on the surface of the wafer 424. By was of example, the inversion layer may be created 426 by applying a corona of appropriate polarity, or by applying a chemical treatment as described above. After the optional creation of the inversion layer, the wafer is moved beneath the probe assembly 14 and the measurements performed 422.

In an alternative embodiment of the method for using SPV to measure electrical characteristics of as-implanted (before annealing) silicon wafer parameters and of implanted/annealed (after annealing) silicon wafer parameters as, a thin thermal oxide layer is grown on the wafer before the species is implanted at step 402. The oxide layer may be grown on the wafer in an rapid thermal furnace, RTF. By way of example, the thickness may be between 20 and 80 angstroms, and is calibrated to insure stable surface charge on the wafer.

In yet another alternative embodiment, the low and varying electron-hole lifetimes associated with ion implant damage (i.e. before annealing) influence results obtained by the standard SPV analysis. When measuring as-implanted (i.e. before annealing) wafers, an optimum frequency for implant damaged silicon wafers may be calculated by varying the frequency at which the light is modulated. In addition, the wavelength of the light used for irradiation may be optimized to account for a wide spectrum of implant conditions. Therefore it is possible to vary the wavelength of light, the light intensity, and light intensity modulation frequency to optimize the measurement of the dopant impurities. For example, the light wavelength may selected to specifically fall within a given spectrum, such as in the infrared or ultraviolet spectrum.

In this embodiment, the frequency of modulation of light intensity sweeps across a given range of frequencies while the wafer is under the probe head. An optimum frequency of modulation for an implant damaged substrate, such as silicon, can be calculated by sweeping the frequency of modulation at a selected maximum light intensity and light wavelength. A wafer with known dose and damage measurements is used as a calibration standard for the substrates being tested.

By way of example, the frequency of modulation may sweep from 0.1 through 100 kHz for a given maximum light intensity and light wavelength. An SPV measurement is taken and compared to a known ion implanted substrate that has been exposed to a defined energy, beam current, and tilt angle. Thus the system can be accurately calibrated and used to produce wafers with measured contour maps to control industrial implant processes using standard statistical methods.

As described above, the probe head is capacitively coupled to the wafer surface during measurement. The capacitive coupling of the probe head to the wafer limits the frequency roll of analysis rather than being dominated by a depletion region capacitance or charged defect capacitance.

Using this method and apparatus, the imaginary part of the SPV signal may be measured for any given frequency. FIG. 11 shows the equivalent circuit model 500 of the substrate typically used with ion implanted analysis. The SPV voltage 502 is measured at the surface of the wafer and allows various electrical characteristics of the wafer to be calculated. The photo-current source 514, which is swept across a given frequency range as described above. The conductance of the quasi neutral region (G₀) 504, capacitance of the quasi neutral region (C₀) 506, recombination capacitance in the space charge region (C₁) 508, the recombination capacitance (C_(d)) in the implant damaged region 510, the recombination conductance in the space charge region (G₁) 512, wafer oxide capacitance (C_(i)) 516, and series resistance (R_(s)) in the implant defect region 518 may be calculated. Furthermore, by measuring the imaginary part of the signal as a function of the light modulation frequency, a maximum at the roll-off frequency due to wafer associated capacitances may be calculated.

FIG. 12 shows a typical swept frequency plot 600 for implanted silicon. The curves show two different implant conditions; lightly implanted 604 and heavily implanted 602, as well as the curve for a standard 606. By way of example, the light damage dose implant curve 604 may represent a species such as boron having been implanted into the wafer at 5 E12 ions/cm². The high damage implanted curve 602 may represent a species such as arsenic having been implanted into the wafer at 5 E13 ions/cm². The curves shift up or down relative to the SPV 608 axis depending on the type of species being plotted for a given modulation frequency sweep 610, the wavelength of light used and maximum intensity of the modulated light. Thus light dose implant 612, heavy dose implant 618 and standard 614 may move up the SPV axis due to the difference in the implant species, maximum intensity of light and light wavelength. The real portion of the SPV measurement enables a calculation of actual light intensity and the imaginary portion is used to measure the phase shift.

The roll-off frequencies (ω) and the slopes of the curves 602 and 604 (α), can be used as calibration points. A combination of parameters can be used to establish a calibration curve for implant parameter on a multi-point curve as show in FIG. 13. FIG. 13 shows an empirical calibration curve from frequency sweep curves for as-implanted silicon.

One advantage of the frequency sweep analysis is that the low lifetimes associated with implanted silicon can be measured over the full range of frequencies. Generally for ultra shallow implants that are less than 5 keV, a low wavelength (e.g. wavelength 0.4 μm) ultraviolet light gives highest signal. For implants with energies greater than 5 keV, (e.g. wavelength 0.375 μm) blue light is more efficient. In general the more intense light source the higher the SPV signal with implanted wafers. Longer wavelength light allows SPV measurements for amorphized surface silicon from heavy ion damage. In addition, light intensities up to those associated with laser diodes will provide improved signals.

Additionally, the present apparatus is particularly adaptable for use in a sealed chamber environment, such as a reduced pressure chamber, a chamber for chemically reactive gasses or a chamber for an inert environment. The entire probe assembly 14 may be positioned within the sealed chamber, with the connections to the electronics passing through the walls of the sealed chamber through pressure fittings. Alternatively, the probe assembly may be mounted in a wall of a sealed chamber such that the sensor is positioned within the chamber but the remainder of the probe assembly is positioned outside of the sealed chamber.

The approach to process monitoring methodology using an AC-SPV method emphasizes determination of variations of the measured parameters from wafer to wafer rather than value of the specific parameter itself. Typically, measurements of the electrical parameters of the back surface of the wafer are not possible without altering the front surface, which has to be contacted in order to complete a measuring circuit. Hence, measurements performed on the back surface of the wafer are not typically used in process monitoring. The non-contact AC-SPV measurements allows process monitoring by measurement of the surface characteristics on the back surface of the wafer as well as the front surface. As described before, the probe head can be installed underneath the wafer, above the wafer, or otherwise, such that the sensor surface is parallel to the wafer back surface, depending on how the wafer conveying system conveys the wafer to the probe head. In addition, two probe heads can be used, one on each side of the wafer for simultaneous characterization of the front and back side of the wafer. As an illustration of such approach comparison of measurements of the surface charge on the front surface featuring mirror-like finish is shown in FIG. 9. The measurements were performed on the two halves of the same 100 mm, p-type, (100) silicon wafers that were simultaneously subjected to the wet cleaning treatments. At various stages of the cleaning process, the surface charge was measured on the front (polished) surface of one half, and on the back (unpolished) surface of the other half. The results shown in FIG. 9 indicate identical behavior of surface charge on the front and back surfaces.

In addition to measuring expitaxial silicon and ion implanted silicon, the disclosed apparatus and method may be used to measure silicon on insulator (SOI) material, strained silicon films, Si—Ge films (Si—Ge) and metallic contamination. For example, SPV can be used to measure the interface charge in SOI material.

Having shown the preferred embodiment, those skilled in the art will realize many variations are possible which will still be within the scope and spirit of the claimed invention. Therefore, it is the intention to limit the invention only as indicated by the scope of the following claims. 

1. A method of measuring damage of an ion implanted semiconductor wafer during semiconductor processing, said method comprising the steps of: a) conveying said wafer such that a surface of said wafer is substantially parallel to a surface photovoltage electrode of a head assembly during said semiconductor processing; b) exposing at least a portion of said wafer to light having a wavelength and having an maximum intensity, said maximum intensity being insufficient to affect charge distribution in said wafer; c) modulating, at a frequency, the intensity of the light up to the maximum intensity; d) detecting with said surface photovoltage electrode a photovoltage induced at the surface of said wafer in response to said modulated light intensity; e) calculating an electrical property of said wafer from said photovoltage induced at the surface of said wafer; and f) repeating steps b–e for a plurality of light intensity modulation frequencies.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the light intensity modulation frequency is varied from 0.1 through 100 kHz.
 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of applying a hydrogen fluoride wash to said wafer.
 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of inducing an inversion layer at the surface of said wafer.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the step of inducing an inversion layer at the surface of said wafer is accomplished by applying a corona to said wafer.
 6. The method of claim 4 wherein the step of inducing an inversion layer at the surface of said wafer is accomplished by applying a chemical treatment to said wafer.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the step of calculating an electrical property of said wafer comprises comparing an electrical property against a standard.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the electrical property comprises net carrier concentration.
 9. An apparatus for measuring damage of an ion implanted semiconductor wafer during semiconductor processing, said apparatus comprising: a head assembly comprising a surface photovoltage electrode; a conveyer for conveying said wafer such that a surface of said wafer is substantially parallel to said surface photovoltage electrode of said head assembly during said semiconductor processing; a light source generating light having a wavelength, and having a maximum intensity, said light source being modulated over a plurality of frequencies up to the maximum intensity, said maximum intensity being insufficient to affect charge distribution in said wafer; and a detector for detecting with said surface photovoltage electrode a photovoltage induced at the surface of said wafer in response to said light; and a processor in electrical communication with said detector for calculating an electrical property of said wafer from said photovoltage induced at the surface of said wafer.
 10. The apparatus as in claim 9 further comprising a grower for growing an oxide layer on said wafer.
 11. The apparatus as in claim 10 wherein the grower comprises a rapid thermal furnace.
 12. The apparatus as in claim 9 further comprising a washer for applying a hydrogen fluoride wash to said wafer.
 13. The apparatus as in claim 9 further comprising a corona.
 14. The apparatus as in claim 9 wherein the processor calculates an electrical property of said wafer by at least comparing an electrical property against a standard.
 15. The apparatus as in claim 9 wherein the electrical property comprises net carrier concentration.
 16. A method of measuring damage of an ion implanted semiconductor wafer during semiconductor processing, said method comprising the steps of: a) growing an oxide layer on the semiconductor wafer; b) performing ion implantation on said wafer; c) conveying said wafer such that a surface of said wafer is substantially parallel to a surface photovoltage electrode of a head assembly during said semiconductor processing; d) exposing at least a portion of said wafer to light having a wavelength and having a maximum intensity, the light intensity being modulated at a frequency up to the maximum intensity, said maximum intensity being insufficient to affect charge distribution in said wafer; e) detecting with said surface photovoltage electrode a photovoltage induced at the surface of said wafer in response to said light; f) calculating an electrical property of said wafer from said photovoltage induced at the surface of said wafer, and g) repeating steps d–f for a plurality of light intensity modulation frequencies.
 17. The method of claim 16 wherein the electrical property comprises net carrier concentration. 